WORDS FOR ‘SPIRIT’ IN MIDDLE PERSIAN: A LEXICAL APPROACH
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Abstract
The terms in use nowadays are the result of a long process during the ages and discussing them can give scholars the earliest concepts on which they are based. This paper deals with a very important concept of ‘spirit’ which, in accordance with the view of the author, at its first stage is natural but due to its nature as a gas, became a mysterious and metaphysical phenomenon, but caused by lacking a unified view about its nature or definition as reflected in primary sources. The concept of the ‘spirit’ as a part of creatures’ being, at least in some words which demonstrate the concept of ‘breathing, blowing’, is a result of meaning development of wind, and then a kind of it, i.e. brea-thing, and finally breathing as a sign for being alive. It is always a point for discussion and not only in Iranian texts, but among scholars from Greece to India, it is significant to give their definition or write about the different degrees of this metaphysical phenomenon, i.e. the ‘spirit’. Through this paper, it is clear that at least some words including mēnōg, wād, waxš or wāxš, ruwān, gyān, grīw and frawahr, and in more limited usages bōy, dēn, axw, uštāna, besides three Semitic roots, i.e. r-w/y-ḥ, n-p-š and n-š-m are used for ‘spirit’ in Middle Persian texts and researchers should be aware of the different contexts that these words are used in. Namely these words in some cases are not in use only for their main or known meanings. Finally, the Middle Persian lexicographers should notice that these words can be included in the entry ‘spirit’ in their works. It also becomes more significant when one discusses this concept through the multicultural identity of Iranian thoughts that accep-ted some features from other nations and also gave them their views. A part of Semitic view about the concept of the spirit has been influenced by Iranian and Greek thoughts about the ‘spirit’ as a spiritual being and this part of the word understanding has increased the complexity and unfamiliarity of the meaning of the concept of ‘spirit’. However, there are many lexical similarities between Iranian and Semitic concept of the ‘spirit’. Therefore, discussing such concepts through its terms can give researchers a wider view about the conceptual transmission of the ‘spirit’ in different textual contexts.
How to Cite
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Middle Persian, lexicography, spirit, soul, Zoroastrian texts, Manichaean texts
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Beekes R. (2009), Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, Lei-den.
Block D. I. (1989), “The Prophet of the Spirit: the Use of RWḤ in the Book of Ezekiel”, Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, Vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 27–49.
Boyce M. (2000), “Fravaši”, Encyclopædia Iranica, Vol. X, Fasc. 2, Mazda Publisher, London and New York, pp. 195–9.
Bulakh M. (2005), “On etymology and usage of terms of smell in Geez (old Ethiopic)”, in L. Kogan, N. Koslova, S. Loesov, and S. Tishchenko (eds), Babel und Bibel 2: Memoriae Igor M. Diakonoff, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, pp. 409–28.
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Jaafari-Dehaghi M. (1998), Dādestān Ī Dēnīg: Transcription, Translation and Commentary, Association pour l’avancement des Études Iraniennes, Paris.
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REFERENCES
Aša R. and Miršāhī M. (1383), Rāsta (The Medical Doctrine of the Magi), Asātīr Publishing, Tehran. (In Persian).
Bahār M. (1390), Bondaheš, Tūs Publisher, Teheran. (In Persian).
Bahār M. (2002), Pažūhēšī dar Asāṭīr-ē Irān, Āgah Publisher, Tehran. (In Persian).
BeDuhn, J. (2001), “The Metabolism of Salvation: Manichaean Concepts of Human Physiology”, in P. Mirecki and J. BeDuhn (eds), The Light and the Darkness: Studies in Manichaeism and its World, Brill, Leiden, pp. 5–37.
Beekes R. (2009), Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, Lei-den.
Block D. I. (1989), “The Prophet of the Spirit: the Use of RWḤ in the Book of Ezekiel”, Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, Vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 27–49.
Boyce M. (2000), “Fravaši”, Encyclopædia Iranica, Vol. X, Fasc. 2, Mazda Publisher, London and New York, pp. 195–9.
Bulakh M. (2005), “On etymology and usage of terms of smell in Geez (old Ethiopic)”, in L. Kogan, N. Koslova, S. Loesov, and S. Tishchenko (eds), Babel und Bibel 2: Memoriae Igor M. Diakonoff, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, pp. 409–28.
Calverley E. E. (1993), “Nafs”, in C. Bosworth, E. v. Donzel, W. Heinrichs, and C. Pellat (eds), Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol. 7: MIF–NAZ, Brill, Leiden, pp. 880–3.
Cantera A. (2004), “Medical Fees and Compositional Principles in the Avestan Vīdēvdād”, Nāme-ye Irān-e Bāstān, Vol. 4 (1), pp. 53–69.
Cheung J. (2007), Etymological Dictionary of the Iranian Verb, Brill, Leiden.
Ciancaglini C. A. (2008), Iranian Loanwords in Syriac, Beiträge zur Iranistik, Bd. 28, Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, Wiesbaden.
de Menasce J. (1973), Le troisième livre du Dēnkart, Klincksieck, Paris.
Durkin-Meisterernst D. (2004), A Dictionary of Manichaean Middle Persian and Parthian, Brepols, Turnhout.
Durkin-Meisterernst D. (2014), Miscellaneous Manichaean Hymns: Middle Persian and Parthian Hymns in the Turfan Collection (Berliner Turfantexte), Brepols, Turnhout.
Durkin-Meisterernst D. and Morano E. (2010), Mani’s Psalms. Middle Persian, Parthian and Sogdian Texts in the Turfan Collection, Brepols, Turnhout.
Esmailpour A. (2005), Manichaean Gnosis & Creation Myth, Sino-Platonic Papers, Vol. 156, Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA.
Filippone E. (2017), “Middle Iranian grīw/γrīw: Possible Paths for Semantic Changes and Functional Shifts”, Zur lichten Heimat Studien zu Manichäismus, Iranistik und Zentralasienkunde im Gedenken an Werner Sundermann, Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, pp.139–55. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv11qdw34.15
Foley T. (2009), Biblical translation in Chinese and Greek: Verbal aspect in theory and practice, Brill, Leiden. https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004178656.i-452
Fowler C. (2011), “Personhood and the Body”, in T. Insoll (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of Ritual and Religion, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 134–50. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199232444.013.0011
Fröhlich I. (2018), “Origins of Evil in Genesis and the Apocalyptic Traditions”, in C. Wassen and S. W. Crawford (eds), Apocalyptic Thinking in Early Judaism: Engaging with John Collins’ The Apocalyptic Imagination, Brill, Leiden, pp. 141–59. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004358386_008
Ghaemmaghami A. R. (2008), The Development of the Old Avestan Concepts in Zoroastrian Tradition, PhD Dissertation, University of Tehran, Tehran. (In Persian).
Gignoux P. (1989), “Sur le composé humain du manichéisme à l’ismaélisme”, in C.-H. de Fouchécour and P. Gignoux (eds), Études irano-aryennes offertes à Gilbert Lazard, Studia Iranica Cahier, T. 7, Association pour l’avancement des études irannienes, Paris, pp. 137–49.
Han S. (2015), Der “Geist” in den Saul- und Davidgeschichten des 1. Samuelbuches, Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, Leipzig.
Hassandoust M. (2014), Etymological Dictionary of the Persian Language, Vol. 2: P–D, Tehran, Farhangestān. (In Persian).
Humbach H. and Ichaporia P. (1994), The Heritage of Zarathushtra: a New Translation of His Gāthās, Universitätsverlag C. Winte, Heidelberg.
Ibn Manẓūr (1993), Lisān al-‘arab, Vol. 6: dār ṣāder. (In Arabic).
Jaafari-Dehaghi M. (1998), Dādestān Ī Dēnīg: Transcription, Translation and Commentary, Association pour l’avancement des Études Iraniennes, Paris.
Kefālāyā (2016), Kefālāyā: nosxe-ye muze-ye Berlin: bargardān-e taṭbiqi az tarjome-ye ālmāni wa engelisi nosxe-ye qobṭi, (M. Qāneʾī and S. Mašāyex, trans.), Ṭahūrī. (In Persian).
Kellens J. (1990), “Un avis sur vieil-avestique mainiiu-“, MSS – Münchener Studien zur Sprachwissenschaft, Bd. 51, pp. 97–123.
Kellens J. (1995), “L’âme entre le cadavre et le paradis”, Journal Asiatique, T. 283, no. 1, pp. 19–56. https://doi.org/10.2143/JA.283.1.556560
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Kogan L. (2015), Genealogical Classification of Semitic: The Lexical Isoglosses, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781614515494
Lyyṭmn m. (ed.) (2014), Zwhr lʿm brʾšyt b, Laitman Kabbalah Publishers, Tehran. (In Hebrew).
MacKenzie D. N. (1971), A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary, Oxford University Press, London.
Matt D. C. (ed.) (2004), The Zohar, Vol. 1, Stanford University Press, Stanford.
Moazami M. (2014), Wrestling with the demons of the Pahlavi Widēwdād: Transcription, Translation and Commentary, Brill, Leiden. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004269224
Murtonen A. (1990), Hebrew in its West Semitic Setting: A Comparative Survey of Non-Masoretic Hebrew Dialects and Traditions: Part One: A Comparative Lexicon, Brill, Leiden. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004348301
Najm-Ābādī K. (2004), Jān, Tan, Rawān, Čēšmēh. (In Persian).
Özertural Z. (2018), “Das Problem der Seele im uigurischen Ma-nichäismus”, in Z. Özertural and G. Silfeler (eds), Der östliche Manichäismus im Spiegel seiner Buch- und Schriftkultur: Vorträge des Göttinger Symposiums vom 11./12. März 2015, De Gruyter, Berlin, pp. 57–72. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110593938-005
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Sanjari S. S. (2011), “Sāxtār-e ensān dar motun-e adabi-ye kohan”, Zibāyi-šnasi-ye adabi, No. 8, pp. 35–50. (In Persian).
Schaeder H. H. and Reitzenstein R. (1926), Studien zum antiken Synkretismus aus Iran und Griechenland, Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-663-15806-6
Shaked S. (1984), “Iranian influence on Judaism: First Century B.C.E. to Second Century C.E.”, in W. D. Davies and L. Finkelstein (eds), The Cambridge History of Judaism, Volume 1: Introduction: The Persian Period, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 308–25. https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521218801.013
Shaked S. (2005), Dualism in Transformation: Varieties of Religion in Sasanian Iran, Routledge, London. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203986028
Shaked S. (2013), “The Sayings of Wuzurgmihr the Sage: A Piece of Sasanian Wisdom Transmitted into Arabic”, in H. Ben-Shammai, S. Shaked, and S. Stroumsa (eds), Exchange and Transmission across Cultural Boundaries: Philosophy, Mysticism and Science in the Mediterranean World, The Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Jerusalem, pp. 216–75.
Shapira D. D. (1999), “Manichaios, Jywndg Gryw and Other Manichæan Terms and Titles”, in S. Shaked and A. Netzer (eds), Irano-Judaica IV; Studies Relating to Jewish Contacts with Persian Culture throughout the Ages, Ben-Zvi Institute, Jerusalem, pp. 122–50.
Shokri-Foumeshi M. (2015), “Dorūd bar pedar, pesar, rūh-al-qodos: rahyāftī matn- šenāxtī be engāre-ye rūh-al-qodos dar taslis-e mānavi”, Religious Studies, Vol. 3, no. 5, pp. 35–48. (In Persian).
Shokri-Foumeshi M. (2015a), Mani’s Living Gospel and the Ewan-gelyōnīg Hymns. Edition, Reconstruction and Commentary with a Codicological and Textological Approach Based on Manichaean Turfan Fragments in the Berlin Collection, The University of Religions and Denominations, Qom.
Sims-Williams N. (2016), A Dictionary: Christian Sogdian, Syriac and English. Reichert Verlag, Wiesbaden.
Skjærvø P. O. (2011), The Spirit of Zoroastrianism, Yale University Press, New Haven and London.
Sohn F. W. (1996), Die Medizin des Zādsparam. Anatomie, Phy-siologie und Psychologie in den Wizīdagīhā ī Zādsparam, einer zoroastrisch-mittelpersischen Anthologie aus dem frühislamischen Iran des neunten Jahrhunderts, Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden.
Steinert U. (2012), Aspekte des Menschseins im Alten Mesopotamien: Eine Studie zu Person und Identität im 2. und 1. Jt. v. Chr., Brill, Leiden. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004226142
Stewart S. (1993), The Concept of ‘Spirit’ in the Old Testament and Zoroastrian Gathas, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Centre of Near and Middle Eastern Studies, London.
Sundermann W. (1993), “Cosmogony and cosmology iii. In Ma-nicheism”, Encyclopædia Iranica, Vol. VI, Fasc. 3, Mazda Publisher, London and New York, pp. 310–5.
Tabaʿe-Izadi M. (1382), “Nafs va rūḥ dar falsafe va ʿerfān”, Xerad-nāme-ye ṣadrā, No. 31, pp. 51–9. (In Persian).
Takahashi H. (2014), “Transcription of Syriac in Chinese and Chinese in Syriac Script”, in J. den Heijer, A. Schmidt and T. Pataridze (eds), Scripts beyond Borders: A Survey of Allographic Traditions in the Euro-Mediterranean World, Peeters, Leuven, pp. 329–49.
Tengström and Fabry (2004), “Rūaḥ spirit, wind”, in G. J. Botterweck, H. Ringgren, and H.-J. Fabry (eds), Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, Vol. 13, Eerdmans, Grand Rapds (Michigan) and Cambridge, pp. 365–401.
Tigchelaar E. (2016), “rūaḥ רוּ חַ”, in H.-J. Fabry and U. Dahmen (eds), Theologisches Wörterbuch zu den Qumrantexten, Vol. III, Kohlhammer, Stuttgart, pp. 618–32.
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