AN EXAMINATION OF KHOTANESE NUMERALS
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Abstract
Khotanese is one of the Eastern Middle Iranian languages that once was spoken in the kingdom of Khotan in southwestern Xinjiang Autonomous Region of China. It is closer to other Eastern Middle Iranian Languages such as Sogdian and Khwarezmian than to Western Middle Iranian languages such as Middle Persian. The oldest traces of Khotanese are some loanwords in Indian inscriptions connected with Kuṣāna rulers from the first two centuries CE and in loanwords in Indian Inscriptions from Eastern Turkistan go back to about 3rd century. The great bulk of the Khotanese extant documents belong to date from the period between the 7th and 10th centuries CE, but some fragments have been dated on paleographical grounds to the 5th and 6th centuries CE. Besides a few numerals in Tibetan scripts, the Khotanese manuscripts have all been written in varying forms of the Indian Brāhmi script. The varieties range from highly formal to cursive. The Khotanese written remains include translations of Buddhist texts, economic and legal documents, and letters. Khotanese is one of the most conservative Eastern Middle Iranian languages, thus we can see more Old Iranian features in it than in other Eastern Iranian languages. But on the other hand, it had been affected by Sanskrit due to the conversion to Buddhism. Thus Khotanese had borrowed many words including of numerals and numerical constructions from Sanskrit. The present paper aims at surveying numerals in Khotanese. It also explains the manner of construction of ordinal, distributive, approximative and composite numbers in this language. It likewise alludes to the most common linguistic phenomenon related to numerals, namely the repetition of numbers and its usages in Khotanese. This topic is also examined in ancient languages such as Sanskrit and Avestan.
How to Cite
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etymology, Khotanese, Numerals, repetition of numbers
Bailey H. W. (1958), “Languages of the Saka”, Spuler B. (ed.), Handbuch der Orientalistik, Abt. I, Bd. IV: Iranistik, I: Linguistik, Berlin, pp. 131–54.
Bailey H. W. (1979), Dictionary of Khotan Saka, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Bartholomae C. (1895), “Vorgeschichte der iranischen Sprachen”, Geiger W. and Kuhn E. (eds.), Grundriss der iranischen Philologie, Bd. 1, Abt. 1, Strassburg, pp. 1–151. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110841190.1
Blažek V. (1999), Numerals, Masarykova univerzita, Brno.
Degener A. (1989), Khotanische Suffixe, Steiner, Stuttgart.
Dresden M. J. (1955), “The Jātakastava or ‘Praise of the Buddha’s Former Births’”, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, New Series, Vol. 45, No. 5, pp. 397–508. https://doi.org/10.2307/1005767
Emmerick R. E. (1968), The Book of Zambasta: A Khotanese Poem on Buddhism, Oxford University Press, London.
Emmerick R. E. (1970), The Khotanese Śūraṅgamasamādhisūtra, Oxford University Press, London.
Emmerick R. E. (1977), “The Confession of Acts”, Acta Iranica 12, pp. 87–115.
Emmerick R. E. (1981), “The Consonant Phonemes of Khotanese”, Acta Iranica 21, pp. 185–209.
Emmerick R. E. (1989), “Khotanese and Tumshuqese”, Schmitt R. (ed.), Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum, Wiesbaden, pp. 204–29.
Emmerick R. E. (1992), “Iranian”, Gvozdanović J. (ed.) Indo-European Numerals, New York, pp. 289–345.
Emmerick R. E. (2008) [unpublished], An Introduction to Khotanese, Wiesbaden.
Emmerick R. E. (2009), “Khotanese and Tumshuqese”, Windfuhr G. (ed.) The Iranian Languages, London, pp. 377–415.
Emmerick, R. E. and Skjærvø, P. O. (1997), Studies in the Voca-bulary of Khotanese III, Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien.
Gercenberg L. G. (1981), “Khotanosakskiy yazyk”, Osnovy iranskogo yazykoznaniya: Sredneiranskiye yazyki, Moskva, pp. 233–313. (In Russian).
Hadank K. (1926), Die Mundarten von Khunsâr, Mahallât, Natänz, Nâyin, Sämnân, Sîvänd und Sô-Kohrûd, Berlin and Leipzig.
Humbach H. (1991), The Gāthās of Zarathushtra and the other old Avestan texts, Vol. II, Winter, Heidelberg.
Konow S. (1932), Saka Studies, Oslo Etnografiske Museum, Oslo.
Konow S. (1941), A Medical Text in Khotanese, Dybwad, Oslo.
Konow S. (1949), Primer of Khotanese Saka, H. Aschehoug, Oslo.
MacDonell M. A. (1917), A Vedic Reader for Students, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
MacDonell M. A. (1971), A Vedic Grammar for Students, Bombay.
Maggi M. (1991), “Note tumšuqesi”, Studia linguistica amico et magistro oblata: Scritti di amici e allievi dedicati alla memoria di Enzo Evangelisti, Milano, pp. 219–28.
Monier-Williams M. (1899), A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, The Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Skjærvø P. O. (2004), The Khotanese Suvarṇabhāsottamasūtra, Vol. 1–2, Harvard University, Harvard.
Whitney W. D. (1924), Sanskrit Grammar, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi.
REFERENCES
Bailey H. W. (1958), “Languages of the Saka”, Spuler B. (ed.), Handbuch der Orientalistik, Abt. I, Bd. IV: Iranistik, I: Linguistik, Berlin, pp. 131–54.
Bailey H. W. (1979), Dictionary of Khotan Saka, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Bartholomae C. (1895), “Vorgeschichte der iranischen Sprachen”, Geiger W. and Kuhn E. (eds.), Grundriss der iranischen Philologie, Bd. 1, Abt. 1, Strassburg, pp. 1–151. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110841190.1
Blažek V. (1999), Numerals, Masarykova univerzita, Brno.
Degener A. (1989), Khotanische Suffixe, Steiner, Stuttgart.
Dresden M. J. (1955), “The Jātakastava or ‘Praise of the Buddha’s Former Births’”, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, New Series, Vol. 45, No. 5, pp. 397–508. https://doi.org/10.2307/1005767
Emmerick R. E. (1968), The Book of Zambasta: A Khotanese Poem on Buddhism, Oxford University Press, London.
Emmerick R. E. (1970), The Khotanese Śūraṅgamasamādhisūtra, Oxford University Press, London.
Emmerick R. E. (1977), “The Confession of Acts”, Acta Iranica 12, pp. 87–115.
Emmerick R. E. (1981), “The Consonant Phonemes of Khotanese”, Acta Iranica 21, pp. 185–209.
Emmerick R. E. (1989), “Khotanese and Tumshuqese”, Schmitt R. (ed.), Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum, Wiesbaden, pp. 204–29.
Emmerick R. E. (1992), “Iranian”, Gvozdanović J. (ed.) Indo-European Numerals, New York, pp. 289–345.
Emmerick R. E. (2008) [unpublished], An Introduction to Khotanese, Wiesbaden.
Emmerick R. E. (2009), “Khotanese and Tumshuqese”, Windfuhr G. (ed.) The Iranian Languages, London, pp. 377–415.
Emmerick, R. E. and Skjærvø, P. O. (1997), Studies in the Voca-bulary of Khotanese III, Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien.
Gercenberg L. G. (1981), “Khotanosakskiy yazyk”, Osnovy iranskogo yazykoznaniya: Sredneiranskiye yazyki, Moskva, pp. 233–313. (In Russian).
Hadank K. (1926), Die Mundarten von Khunsâr, Mahallât, Natänz, Nâyin, Sämnân, Sîvänd und Sô-Kohrûd, Berlin and Leipzig.
Humbach H. (1991), The Gāthās of Zarathushtra and the other old Avestan texts, Vol. II, Winter, Heidelberg.
Konow S. (1932), Saka Studies, Oslo Etnografiske Museum, Oslo.
Konow S. (1941), A Medical Text in Khotanese, Dybwad, Oslo.
Konow S. (1949), Primer of Khotanese Saka, H. Aschehoug, Oslo.
MacDonell M. A. (1917), A Vedic Reader for Students, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
MacDonell M. A. (1971), A Vedic Grammar for Students, Bombay.
Maggi M. (1991), “Note tumšuqesi”, Studia linguistica amico et magistro oblata: Scritti di amici e allievi dedicati alla memoria di Enzo Evangelisti, Milano, pp. 219–28.
Monier-Williams M. (1899), A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, The Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Skjærvø P. O. (2004), The Khotanese Suvarṇabhāsottamasūtra, Vol. 1–2, Harvard University, Harvard.
Whitney W. D. (1924), Sanskrit Grammar, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi.